Does the Brutal Truth in Sonnet 130 Essay

Does the brutal truth in Shakespeare’s ‘Sonnet 130’ and Swift’s ‘A beautiful Young Nymph going to bed’, take away from the beauty of the two poems. Beauty and aesthetics can be defined as â€Å"Nothing more nor less, than sensitivity to the sublime and the beautiful and an aversion to the ordinary and ugly†, this means that beauty can be absolutely anything which is beautiful as long as it is not ugly or ordinary, this may seem harsh, much like the poems by William Shakespeare and Jonathan Swift. In both poems; ‘Sonnet 130’ by William Shakespeare and ‘A beautiful young nymph going to bed’ by Jonathan Swift, aesthetic beauty is explored in a brutal and honest light. Shakespeare’s ‘Sonnet 130’ tells the story of a man describing his mistress intimately, yet distastefully; â€Å"†¦ why then her breasts are dun. † Whereas in ‘A beautiful young nymph going to bed’, Swift tells the story of a low class prostitute in London in the 18th century â€Å"Pride of Drury Lane†, and her undressing â€Å"Takes off her artificial hair†. When considering beauty and aesthetics within the poems; â€Å"Sonnet 130† and ‘A beautiful young nymph going to bed’, it may seem impossible to think of the poems as beautiful when they include such vulgarity and distaste towards the women within them; Shakespeare’s ‘Dark Lady’ and Swift’s work of fiction ‘Corinna’. However, the poems are written and presented beautifully, and may be considered well deserved of their place within the canon of English Literature. The worth and value of texts within the canon of English literature â€Å"†¦ are generally characterised by complexity of plot, structure, language and ideas. † Despite the ugliness in the poems, the way the poems are written and the complexity of them, still leave the poems as classic texts to be enjoyed and appreciated. The use of metaphors, similes and the complexity of the story within both makes them eligible for the canon of English literature, showing that a poem can still be considered beautiful for the way it is written despite the contents. Sonnet 130’ may initially seem harsh; however it was not intended to disparage Shakespeare’s mistress’s looks as so many commentators have understood, what is meant is that she and her looks together do not require ridiculous comparisons to angels which are clearly unrealistic as her personality and the way she is, is attractive in itself. The term â€Å"†¦mistress†¦Ã¢â‚¬  has an ambiguous mea ning, it could refer to a husband’s wife, or as defined in the Oxford English Dictionary; â€Å"†¦ a woman loved and courted by a man; a female sweetheart† or â€Å"a woman other than his wife with whom a man has a long-lasting sexual relationship†. The poem suggests the latter meaning, supposing it to be, Shakespeare’s so-called Dark Lady. Shakespeare wrote about ‘the Dark Lady’ in many of his sonnets. Sonnets 127-152 were allegedly based on ‘the Dark Lady’ so called because the poems make it clear that she has black hair and dusky skin, â€Å"†¦breasts are dun. † Each of the poems deal with a highly personal theme, for example, in ‘Sonnet 130’ a relationship between a man and his mistress experiencing love and lust is discussed. The sonnets have an autobiographical feel, posing the question; who was Shakespeare’s ‘Dark Lady’? Shakespeare scholar, Dr Duncan Salkeld from the University of Chichester found evidence suggesting that she was a madam called â€Å"Lucy Negro† or â€Å"Black Luce†, who ran a notorious brothel in Clerkenwell. He believes that she is â€Å"the foremost candidate for the dubious role of the â€Å"Dark Lady†. Wilson Knight said when considering the relationship between Shakespeare and the ‘Dark Lady’; that â€Å"†¦it appears to have been finer than lust and cruder than love†, here he demonstrates his doubts about them being in love. He admits that they may have had strong feelings for each other but questions whether they were in love, he does; however agree that their relationship went further than lust and the sexual side of the relationship. The fact that Shakespeare kept her identity hidden, does pose the question, did he really love her and in turn support Wilson’s quote about not being in love. It may seem romantic of Shakespeare to have kept his lover a secret, but we must remain aware that he did have a wife at home in Stratford upon Avon. The possible occupation of Shakespeare’s ‘Dark Lady’ gives a contextual link to Swift’s poem; ‘A Beautiful Young Nymph Going to Bed’, as the role of prostitution is explored in this poem and there are suggestions that this was the role of the Dark Lady. The purpose of satire is to show what is bad or weak about something or someone through humour and exaggeration. Jonathan Swift is known as ‘The Godfather of Satire’, Swift himself defined satire as; â€Å"satire is a sort of glass, wherein beholders do generally discover everybody’s faces but their own’. Here, Swift explains how everyone who reads his satire will see how he is mocking everyone else, apart from themselves. The use of satire gives ‘A beautiful young nymph going to bed’ complexity when looking at the meaning, similarly to Sonnet 130, making it eligible for the canon of English Literature, as one of the requirements to be eligible is that the work has â€Å"†¦complexity†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Swift published ‘A beautiful young nymph going to bed’ in 1734, the poem is satirical, and it satirise women’s artificiality; â€Å"Takes off her artificial hair† and their use of the male gaze. He wrote the poem in the 18th century, when around 63,000 prostitutes were working in London, a terrible time, as prostitutes became more popular and more common, sexually transmitted diseases spread rapidly. Although in his poem, he looks down upon Corinna and effectively the women who were also in her position, he also intends to satirize the wealthy men who use prostitutes and in turn cause this problem. The male voice of narration in this poem is judgemental and snobbish. This voice effectively mocks the upper classes who most likely use prostitution as they could afford it. The voice insults those upper classes who use and abuse Corinna, demonstrating the gap between the classes in society at the time. Much like Swift, Shakespeare’s Sonnet 130 has a separate motive, other than writing a love poem to his â€Å"†¦mistress†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . On another level, the poem might suggest that the metaphors and language that sonneteers traditionally use are often hyperbolic beyond reality. ‘Sonnet 130’ mocks the fanciful conventions of romantic poetry by subverting the conventions of Petrarchan sonnets, which wrote about idealised beauty. This poem is about Shakespeare’s relationship with the ‘dark lady’ and he speaks of her realistically but harshly posing the question; is it better to be attractive with no personality or plain with a good personality? Here Shakespeare chooses the latter and is brutally honest, rather than being complimentary. The vocabulary he uses is harsh and cold; â€Å"†¦reeks†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Here Shakespeare comments on his mistress’s breath, he seems rude and offensive. The implication here is that when he goes to kiss her, he is not thinking of her, but of her bad breath and this is unkind. However, this may be merely a reflection of Elizabethan dental hygiene. Shakespeare writes that â€Å"Coral is far more red†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , which is a clever simile, comparing her lips to coral is slightly over the top, as for lips to be that bright, they would have had to have been painted on and this is the type of fakery that Shakespeare is mocking. Shakespeare focuses on all of the things that would make you look at a woman sensually, her eyes, lips, breasts, skin and hair. However, in this poem these features are not appealing which is different to a conventional sonnet. A sonnet would traditionally have 14 lines, 3 quatrains and a final rhyming couplet; â€Å"†¦love as rare† and â€Å"†¦false compare†, which follows an abab rhyme scheme, ‘Sonnet 130’ follows these conventions but, a sonnet is also conventionally romantic and flattering, and this sonnet does not follow this convention at all. Undeniably, the form of a sonnet is presented charmingly and despite the harsh content, still leaves the poem to be enjoyed. He comments that he thinks his â€Å"†¦love as rare†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , however, the fact that he kept this dark lady’s identity secret shows a lack of respect and a hint of embarrassment as he did not reveal the truth. This lack of respect correlates with Swift’s ‘A beautiful young nymph going to bed’ as he is rude, sarcastic and brutal about the fictional Corinna; â€Å"Pride of Drury Lane†. Swift tells the reader that Corinna is unpopular, â€Å"Never did Covent Garden boast† and that no one is interested in her as she returns home at â€Å"†¦ the Midnight Hour. † At the time Covent Garden and Drury Lane would both have been heavily populated by prostitutes. Swift is disgusted by women like Corinna and is not shy about showing it in this poem. He describes Corinna as offensively and nastily as he can, telling the reader about her â€Å"†¦flabby dugs†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Swift links lines inside the poems to further insult Corinna; â€Å"†¦slips the Bolsters†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å"Ruins†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . â€Å"Must ev’ry morn her limbs unite† she has to rebuild herself and reconstruct her beauty every morning. Ruins are what is left of an ancient building when the structure is lost, Corinna is compared to a building when Swift says â€Å"†¦and off she slips the Bolsters that supply her hips. implying that, like a building she has a structure and without it, she becomes the â€Å"Ruins of the Night†. Swift criticises artificial beauty and fakery, which has links to famous fairy tales, such as; Snow White or Sleeping Beauty. In these stories the women are beautiful for being natural; â€Å"†¦skin as white as snow†¦Ã¢â‚¬ unlike Corinna. This suggests that pale and natural skin is attr active, which links to the women of the 18th century, when the paler you were, the more beautiful you were. Corinna objectifies the opposite of 18th century beauty The brutal truth within ‘Sonnet 130’ does not take away the beauty from the poem. The beauty of Sonnet 130 is continued by the composite way it has been written and the ambiguous meanings and reasons for being written; these are what make the poem seem complex as it is filled with different ideas. The poem could be a confession of love as believed, a slightly sarcastic joke about his mistress or a complex exploration of the conventions of sonnets. The brutal truth within the poem hides Shakespeare’s true feelings for ‘the Dark Lady’. In Jonathan Swift’s ‘A beautiful young nymph going to bed’ the appeal of the poem is continued, despite the brutal truth of the contents, by the strong concept of satire within the poem. Swift has very cleverly turned what appears to be a misogynistic attack on women to become an attack on the people who have caused this for her. The brutal truth about Corinna hides the underlying meaning and it is this complexity within the meaning and plot, which keeps the reader interested and allows Swift to broadcast his message subtly but with clarity.

Night World : Black Dawn Chapter 6

Because there's no point. She's as good as dead already.† Jeanne's expression was as hard andclosedas it had been in the beginning. â€Å"But – â€Å" â€Å"Can't you see? She'd slow us down. There's noway she could run without help. And besides that,P.J. says she's blind.† Blind. A new little shock went though Maggie.What would that be like, to be in this situation andsick and blind on top of it? She tugged on the girl's shoulder gently, tryingto see the averted face. But she's beautiful. The girl had smooth skin the color of coffee with cream, delicate features, high cheekbones, perfectlips. Her black hair was pulled into a loose, glossyknot on her neck. Her eyes were shut, long eye lashes tremblingas if she were dreaming. It was more than just the physical features,though. There was a serenity about this girl's face,a gentleness and stillness that was †¦ unique. â€Å"Hey, there,† Maggie said softly. â€Å"Can you hearme? I'm Maggie. What's your name?† The girl's eyelashes fluttered; her lips parted. ToMaggie's surprise, she murmured something. Maggie had to lean down close to catch it. â€Å"Arcadia?† she repeated. It was a strange name; she wasn't sure she'd heard right. The girl seemed to nod, murmuring again. She can hear me, Maggie thought. She canrespond. â€Å"Okay. Can I call you Cady? Listen to me, Cady.†Maggie shook the girl's shoulder slightly. â€Å"We're ina bad place but we're going to try to escape. If we help you out, do you think you can run?† Again, the eyelashes fluttered. Then the eyesopened. Doe eyes, Maggie thought, startled. They wereextraordinarily large and clear, a warm brown withan inner radiance. And they might be blind, butMaggie had the oddest sensation that she had justbeen seen more clearly than ever before in her life. â€Å"I'll try,† Cady murmured. She sounded dazedand in pain, but quietly rational. â€Å"Sometimes I feelstrong for a little while.† She pushed herself up. Maggie had to help her get into a sitting position. She's tall. But she's pretty light†¦and I've gotgood muscles. I can support her. â€Å"What are you doing?†Jeanne said in a voice thatwas not just harsh and impatient but horrified. â€Å"Don't you see? You're only making it worse. You should just have let her sleep.† Maggie glanced up. â€Å"Look. I don't know whatyou're thinking, but we can't leave anybody with them. How would you like to be left behind if itwas you?† Jeanne's face changed. For a moment, she lookedmore like a savage animal than a girl. â€Å"I'd understand,† she snarled. â€Å"Because that's the way it has to be. It's the law of the jungle, here. Only strongpeople survive. The weak ones †¦ .†She shook her head. â€Å"They're better off dead. And the faster youlearn that, the more chance you'll have.† Maggie felt a spurt of horror and anger-and,fear. Because Jeanne clearly knew the most about this place, and Jeanne might be right. They mightall get caught because of one weak person who wouldn't make it anyway†¦. She turned and looked at the lovely face again.Arcadia was Miles's age, eighteen or nineteen. And although she seemed to hear what Jeanne was say ing-she'd turned her face that way-she didn'tspeak or argue. She didn't lose her still gentleness, either. I can't leave her. What if Miles is alive but hurtsomewhere, and somebody won't help him? Maggie shot a glance at P.J. in her baseball cap.She was young-she might be able to take care ofherself, but that was all. â€Å"Look, this isn't your problem,† she finally saidto Jeanne. â€Å"You just help P.J. get away safe, okay?You take care of her, and III be responsible for Cady.† â€Å"You'll be caught with Cady,† Jeanne said flatly.†Don't worry about it.† â€Å"I'm not. And I'm telling you right now; I'm notgoing to help you if you get in trouble.† â€Å"I don't want you to,† Maggie said. She lookedright into Jeanne's angry eyes. â€Å"Really. I don't wantto wreck your chances, okay? But I'm not going toleave her.† Jeanne looked furious for another moment; thenshe shrugged. All the emotion drained from herface as if she were deliberately distancing herself.The bond she and Maggie had shared for that brief moment was severed. She turned, looked through a crack behind her,then turned back. â€Å"Fine,† she said in a dull, indifferent tone. â€Å"Whatever you're going to do, you'd better get ready todo it now. Because the place is coming right up.† â€Å"Ready?† Maggie said. They were all standing-or crouching, actually,since there wasn't room to straighten up-withtheir backs against the walls of the cart. Jeanneand P.J. on one side, Maggie on the other, with Cady in the corner. â€Å"When I say go, you guys jump over here. Thenall of us throw ourselves back that way,† Maggie whispered. Jeanne was peering out of the crack. â€Å"Okay, thisis it,† she said. â€Å"Now.† Maggie said,†Go!† She had been a little worried that P.J. would freeze. But the moment the word was out of Maggie's mouth, Jeanne launched herself across thecart, crashing heavily into her, and P.J. followed. ThecartrockedsurprisinglyhardandMaggieheard the groan of wood. â€Å"Back!† she yelled, and everybody lunged the other way. Maggie hit a solid wall and knew shewould have bruises, but the cart rocked again. â€Å"Come on!† she yelled, and realized that they were all already coming on, throwing themselvesto the other side in perfect sync. It was as if someflocking instinct had taken over and they were all three moving as one, throwing their weight alter nately back and forth. And the cart was responding, grinding to a halt and lurching off balance. It was like one of thoseparty tricks where five or six people each use only two fingers to lift someone on a chair. Their combined force was impressive. But not enough to tip the cart over. It was surprisingly well-balanced. And at any minute, Maggie realized, the people driving it were going to jumpout and put a stop to it. â€Å"Everybody-come on! Really hard! Really hard!†She was yelling as if she were encouraging her soccer team. â€Å"We've got to do it, now.† She launched herself at the other side as the cartbegan to sway that way, jumping as highas shecould, hitting the wallas it reached the farthestpoint of its rock. She could feel the other girlsflinging themselves with her, she could hear Jeanne giving a primal yell as she crashed into the wood. And then there was a splintering sound, amazingly loud, amazingly long. A sort of groaning and shrieking that came from the wood itself, and aneven louder scream of panic that Maggie realizedmust have come from the horses. The whole world was,Run, Maggie thought. Stop looking now. Run. She ran into the forest, dragging Cady with her. They had to find a place to hide – underbrush or something. Maybe they could climb a tree†¦. But one look at Cady and she realized how stupid thatidea was. The smooth skin of the girl's facewas clammy and luminous with sweat, her eyeswere half shut, and her chest was heaving. At least Jeanne and P.J. got away, Maggiethought. Just then there was a crashing behind her, and a voice cursing. Maggie threw another glance backand found herself staring at a man's figure in the mist. A scary man. The mist swirling behind him madehim look eerie, supernatural, but it was more thanthat. He was huge,with shouldersasbroad as a two-by-four, a massive chest, and heavily muscledarms. His waist was surprisingly narrow. His face was cruel. â€Å"Gavin! I've got two of them!† he shouted.Maggie didn't wait to hear more. She took offlike a black-tailed deer. And for a long time after that it was just a nightmare of running and being chased, stopping sometimes when she couldn't hold Cady up anymore, looking for places to hide. At one point, she andCady were pressed together inside a hollow tree,trying desperately to get their breath back withoutmaking a sound, when their pursuers passed right by them. Maggie heard the crunch and squish offootsteps on ferns and started praying. She couldfeel Cady's heart beating hard, shaking them both, she realized that Cady's lips were moving soundlessly. Maybe she's praying, too, Maggie thought,t, andapplied her eye to a crack in the tree. There were two people there, horribly close, justa few feet away. One was the man she'd seen before he was doing something bizarre, somethingthat sent chills up her spine. He was turning his face this way and that with his eyes shut, his head twisting on a surprisingly long and supple neck. As if he's smellingus out, Maggie thought, horrified. Eyes still shut, the man said, â€Å"Do you sense anything?† â€Å"No. I can't feel them at all. And I can't see them,with these trees for cover.† It was a younger manwho spoke, a boy really. He must be Gavin, Maggiethought. Gavin had dark blond hair, a thin nose, a sharp chin. His voice was impatient. â€Å"I can't feel them either,† the big man said flatly,refusing to be hurried. â€Å"And that's strange. Theycan't have gotten too far away. They must beblocking us.† â€Å"I don't care what they're doing,† Gavin said.†We'd better get them back fast. It's not like theywere ordinary slaves. If we don tdeliver that maiden we're dead. You're dead, Bern.† Maiden? Maggie thought. I guess in a placewhere they have slaves it's not weird to talk aboutmaidens. But which girl does he mean? Not me;I'm not important. â€Å"We'll get her back,† Bern was saying. â€Å"We'd better,† Gavin said viciously. â€Å"Or I'm goingto tell her that it was your fault. We were supposedto make sure this didn't happen.† â€Å"It hasn't happened yet,† Bern said. He turned onhis heel and walked into the mist. Gavin staredafter him for a moment, and then followed. Maggie let out her breath. She realized that Cady's lips had stopped moving. â€Å"Let's go,† she whispered, and took off in the opposite direction to the one the men had gone. Then there was a time of endless running andpausing and listening and hiding. The forest was aterrible place. Around them was eerie twilight,made even spookier by the mist that lay in hollowsand crept over fallen trees. Maggie felt as if she were in some awful fairy tale. The only good thingwas that the dampness softened their footsteps,making it hard to track them. But it was so quiet. No ravens, no gray jays. No deer. Just the mist and the trees, going on forever.And then it ended. Maggie and Cady suddenly burst out into an-.other meadow. Maggie gavea frantic glancearound, looking for shelter. Nothing. The mist was thinner here, she could see that there were no trees ahead, only an outcrop of rocks. Maybe we should double back†¦. But the voices were shouting in the forest behind them. Above the rocks was a barren ledge. It lookedlike the end of a path, winding the other way down the mountain. If we could get there, we'd be safe, Maggiethought. We could be around the corner in a minute, and out of sight. Dragging Cady, she headed for the rocks. Theydidn't belong here; they were huge granite boulders deposited by some ancient glacier. Maggie clambered up the side of one easily, then leaned down. â€Å"Give me your hand,† she said rapidly. â€Å"There sa path up above us, but we've got to climb a little.† Cady looked at her. Or-not looked, Maggie supposed. But she turned her face toward Maggie, and once again Maggie had the odd feeling that those blind eyescould somehow see better than most people's. â€Å"You should leave me,† Cady said. â€Å"Don't be stupid,† Maggie said. â€Å"Hurry up, giveme your hand.† Cady shook her head. â€Å"You go,† she said quietly.She seemed completely rational-and absolutely exhausted. She hadn't lost the tranquility whichhad infused her from the beginning, but now itseemed mixed with a gentle resignation. Her fineboned face was drawn with weariness. â€Å"I`ll justslow you down. And if I stay here, you'll have moretime to get away.† â€Å"I'm not going to leave you!† Maggie snapped.†Come on!† Arcadia remained for just a second, her faceturned up to Maggie's, then her clear and luminousbrown eyes filled. Her expression was one of inexpressible tenderness. Then she shook her headslightly and grabbed Maggie's hand-very accurately. Maggie didn't waste. time. She climbed as fastasshe could, pulling Cady, rapping out breathless instructions. But the delay had cost them. She could hear the men getting nearer. And when she reached the far end of the pile ofboulders she saw something that sent shock waves through her system. She was looking up a barren cliff face. There wasno connection from the rocks to the ledge above.And below her, the hillside dropped off steeply, ahundred feet down into a gorge. She'd led Cady right into a trap. There was nowhere else to go.

Networking Concepts and Applications Essay

One of the key differences between different network types is their geographical scope. A local area network, or LAN, is made up of a smaller group of computers linked together and located in the same small area such as a room, a floor or a building. A backbone network, or BN, is a larger network which connects multiple LANs, WANs, MANs or other BNs together and can range from a few hundred feet to miles in size. Metropolitan area networks, or MANs, normally range in size from a few miles up to thirty miles and LANs and BNs from different areas to each other as well as to WANs. Wide area networks, or WANs, can be hundreds or thousands of miles in size and connect MANs and BNs across these distances. Question 14: Explain how a message is transmitted from one computer to another using layers. The message is first created at the application layer using a software application. This software translates the message based on the protocol being used to transfer the message and places the necessary information along with the message into a Protocol Data Unit (PDU) which is also known as a ‘packet’. This packet is then passed on to the Transport Layer. The transport layer, using its own Transmission Control Protocol, or TCP, takes the packet from the application layer and places it in a TCP packet along with whatever additional data the TCP segment requires, and passes it along to the Network Layer. The Network Layer, as with the previous layers, has its own protocols. In this case we’ll use the Internet Protocol, or IP. IP determines the next destination as the message is routed through the network, places the TCP packet inside an IP packet along with any additional required data and passes in on to the Data Link Layer. The Data Link Layer will again have its own protocols and rules for transmitting the message and will format the message with the necessary start and stop markers, add error checking data, place the IP packet within a new packet based on the Data Link Layer protocol being used and pass it on to the Physical Layer. The Physical Layer is whatever physical hardware is being used to transmit the message to the other computer. The hardware then converts the data passed to it into a series of electrical pulses and sends them across the network to their destination. The electrical pulses are then captured by the receiving hardware, which then passes the Data Link Layer packet to be unpacked by the Data Link Layer. From there the Network Layer’s packet is passed on to the Network Layer to be unpacked. The Transport Layers packet is passed on to the Transport Layer which finally passes the Application Layer’s packet on to be processed by the Application Layer. Question 17: Describe two important data communications standards-making bodies. How do they differ? One major data communications standards making body is the Telecommunications Group, or International Telecommunications Union. The Telecommunications Group is standards setting group based out of Geneva with members from approximately 200 countries and focuses on setting technical standards. Another is the Internet Engineering Task Force, or IETF, is an organization which sets the standards which govern how much of the internet operates. While both of the organizations are similar in that they are standard making bodies focused on data communications, they differ in the scope of their focus as well as the structure of membership. The ITU’s membership is made up of representatives from different countries around the world and focuses on technical standards for international telecommunications. The IETF’s membership completely different, the IETF membership is open to anyone and anyone may attend their meetings and receive their mailings. They also have a much narrower focus and solely set standards regarding the operation of the internet. References FitzGerald, J., & Dennis, A. (2009). Business data communications and networking. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.

Relationship between Shapes, i.e. line towards Wellbeing Essay

Relationship between Shapes, i.e. line towards Wellbeing - Essay Example Minds have shape and so do emotions and these two unseen parts of human being are themselves shaped by knowledge and experience so that it makes sense to ponder that while shapes widely exist in several regions of the earth and universe, it would bear less to acknowledge them apart from the essence of relations. In the field of art, shape proves to be an essential component that constitutes any piece of creation with a defined boundary. Its non-static property allows it to establish dynamic and flexible connection with other visual elements such as lines, curves, texture, and color (Definition of Shape – Art History Glossary). If not, how is it possible to imagine random lines or figures spread in space toward shapeless construction? Whether something is identified as regular or irregular, there certainly is a sensible ground of opting to view and feel what proceeds as definite rather than to dwell at the sight and thought of absence in dimensions which is as good as non-existence. Dealing with shapes means evolving with them in several aspects of life for they embody both the origin and shadow of form in everything at all times. Mathematicians have been able to synthesize concepts through Euclidian geometry, discovery of conic sections, and other relevant areas which to this point are of huge advantage due to man’s fundamental learning of shapes. Likewise, it has sparked the interest of humanity to examine graphical theories in order to grasp the symmetry and orientations that extend their significance to musical dimension where the shape of rhythm is comparable to a curvilinear flow that sculpts and refines manner of appreciative listening. Thinkers and composers can be naturally observed to have become unified by virtue of artistry in the process of shaping symphonic orchestration, literary endeavor of writing

According to the requirement and i am living in the Santa Barbara Assignment

According to the requirement and i am living in the Santa Barbara - Assignment Example The aesthetic value of the three triangles remains unclear among artists and art lovers. It is necessary to analyze Bento’s background and his experiences in analyzing the aesthetic value of this sculpture. This is because life experiences and childhood background has profound influence on an artist’s work. The three triangles has some cultural values that Bento follows. He uses iron and steel to manufacture this sculpture. Bento’s background influences his work. His use of iron signifies his connection to his roots in southern Ohio (Ratcliff, Carter, Collette, Jolei & Fletcher 156). In addition to using art to connect with his roots, this sculpture signifies a breakthrough from mainstream artists especially kinetics artists. Most kinetic artists used aluminum, wood or lacquer in their sculptures. The three triangles sculpture highlights Bento’s innovation. In the development of art, it signifies the end of kinetics art and the beginning of a new artistic style. The three triangles sculpture signifies the importance of constructivism in Bento’s career (Ratcliff, Carter, Collette, Jolei & Fletcher 186). One of the major differences with other mainstream artists was Bento’s belief in creativity. This sculpture is quintessential of constructivism as a style of art. Bento painted the three triangles sculpture red like the Steel Watercolor sculpture in Cologne Germany. The red painting of this sculpture is in tandem with Santa Barbara college color highlighting Bento’s ability to blend his art with the surrounding environment. The three triangles sculpture cultural impact is on the use of three-dimensional figures in art. The sculpture contains three triangles. Prior to this sculpture, artists hardly used three-dimensional figures in their artworks. Ratcliff, Carter, Collette, Jolei & Fletcher (225) argues that this sculpture, therefore, exemplifies the use of three-dimensional figures such as triangles,

Starting An Aquarium Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Starting An Aquarium - Lab Report Example Water in the glass or fibre tank provides the fish with a close to nature location. When the fish are bought and put in the aquarium, they find it an almost natural habitat. There are plants to provide oxygen, the gravel at the bottom acting as a substrate for the plants. The light not only makes the fish look attractive, it helps the plants grow too. The filter helps keep the water clean for the fish, and drains out unwanted chemicals, like ammonia. The powerhead is used to gently circulate the water and drain it out when required. * List of materials and equipment 1. Fish tank: glass or fibre. 2. Stand for the tank. 3. Gravel for the plants. 4. Lights, preferably CFL for the tank. 5. Filter 6. Hood 7. Powerhead 8. Air pumps 9. Net 10. Cleaning Equipment 11. Fish * Directions Steps 1. Choose the Tank: Chose the tank, depending on the size and shape that fits your room. 2. Select or make a stand for the tank to rest on. 3. Place the soil at the bottom, aquarium soil called fluorite is available in pet shops. 4. Next, place the gravel on the layer of soil. 5. Place the decorative material. 6. Add water gently into the tank through a siphon. 7. Drill the hole near the bottom and place a filter (Eheim 2313 Classic filter).Make sure there is a filter intake and filter output 8. Add a CO2 system(yeast/fermentation plant) to help the plants grow well. 9. Place a heater is near the water flow, such as the outlet (or inlet) from the filter, or in the stream of a power head. 10. Install the plants and add water . 11. Add the fish. 12. Place the aquarium lid on top along with the lights, preferably fluorescent. 13. The aquarium is ready to be used.

Community Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Community Nursing - Essay Example The plan proposes various measures that would promote good health in a wider sense. There are various strengths that are highlighted and areas where improvements need to be made and all these seeks to have a health promotion program that will become a success. The teaching program is to be initiated in a community where there are elderly people and individuals who are unable to take care of their health or those who have no health insurance. This teaching program would ensure that the members of the community are well endowed with the information they need in order to make them responsible for their own health. The project also addresses the kind of engagements that would lead to the actual learning process taking place and the very important tools that would be needed for this project to be a success. Key among the things outlined in the plan is the resources that would be needed for this kind of a venture just for the purpose of having a process that is above board. In conclusion, the plan addresses the objectives and aims of this teaching program and what would be achieved after such a noble course. Epidemiology Rationale for the Topic The problem of lifestyle diseases has been a major concern for the community in Georgia. Diabetes has been the leading illness in the lifestyle diseases with obesity being a key concern. ... As for the lifestyle diseases, the elderly had cancer as a big challenge to those aged 65 and above. Diabetes was found to be a serious challenge affecting everyone across the board; the old people to younger people. Obesity among the young people and smoking habits was a major cause of diabetes among the young people. For these urgent care had to be initiated to help those already affected and those who are likely to be affected. Statistics from the health superintendent of the Georgia center for disease control and prevention in the state of Georgia has provided very shocking results about people who are affected by the lifestyle diseases like diabetes (Stroup & Teutsch, 1998). The results showed that: 35% of the adults in old age had diabetes. 40% of the young adults had diabetes 33% of the teens were diabetic and had obesity with heart complications 40% of those above the age of 65 years had cancer disease 50% of those in old age around 75 years had heart disease Evaluation of Te aching Experience The experience of teaching in the community was an interesting affair that really opened my eyes to various possibilities. At first, I thought that the experience was going to be a tough one and I was very nervous at some point, as I did not know what was going to be about my teaching experience. My experience in the community and having to interact with different groups of people was one that remained painted in my mind for the longest time ever. The fear of the unknown once again caught up with me in an unprecedented manner as I prepared myself for the teaching exercise. The responsibilities which I was to teach the people on the benefits of primary prevention or health promotion, and I knew it was not going to be an easy task even though I

Health Care Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Health Care Ethics - Essay Example McWay (2010) argues that it is the sole responsibility of the health practitioners to ensure that all manner of information that relates to the patients’ background information is concealed. Studies indicate that maintaining confidentiality is one of the best antidotes towards a successful healing process for the client. This is in relation to the fact that, clients feel completely relaxed and secure while disclosing information that relates to their medical predicaments. In cases where clients have had nasty experiences with nurses or any other health practitioners, who disclose their medical conditions, such patients were recorded to conceal crucial information, that would otherwise contribute a great mile towards their healing process. This is an interpretation of great tasks that, health practitioners have to undertake in an attempt not only to safeguard their jobs but also, to make patients’ healing process trouble-free. This essay shall highlight the importance of safeguarding patients’ information by the health practitioners. The essay shall also attempt to undertake a study on the ethical and legal implications of breaching the terms and conditions of health care ethics, that works on the basis of safeguard of patient’s information. In his work, he continues to argue that, if there arises a need for disclosure of information on the patients’ medical history, the patient has the right to be aware of the kind of information being portrayed to any other parties. Once patients feel comfortable, studies indicate that majority tend to disclose information, which ultimately leads to quick and certain medication by the medical practitioners. Disclosure and maintenance of patients’ medical background information, as health care ethics, involves protection and impositions by law. Harman (2006) indicates, that a great percentage of health practitioners are aware of the fact, that patients have a right to file lawsuits in case they feel that, their rights are infringed by medical physicians. In the context of revealing information, other than committing suicide by the client, patients have a right to demand explanations in regard to infringing on their privacy in other contexts. Analysts believe that in such instances, there is no exception; the health practitioner has to compensate the patient or offer tangible explanations on the reasons behind their actions. However, studies indicate that in such cases, patients end up taking the case. This is an interpretation of the weightiness of this health care ethics. At times, health practitioners are at a risk of losing their jobs over the disclosure of patients’ information, especially in cases where health practitioners have no tangible evidence of their actions. There have been numerous arguments on the protection of patients’ information as legally binding.

How wearable technology affect developer of web content Essay

How wearable technology affect developer of web content - Essay Example The paper tells that the latest change in technology is causing everyone in the technology industry to notice and use wearables. In technology, the term wearable refers to a range of technological devices. According to Ruiz and Goransson, â€Å"it fits everything from iPod controls embedded in the sleeve of your ski jacket to intelligent shoes that tell you which direction to turn when you reach an intersection†. Rather than just holding technological devices, people today are comfortable wearing them on. Google glass is a perfect example of wearable technology. It is a technological gadget mounted on the head in a similar way as eye glasses, which acts more like a computer with voice activated and capabilities to perform google searches, take videos and photos, look for directions, and a range of other functionalities. The emergence of wearable technology has come with a number of impacts. Among them is a huge impact on web content developers and the world of web design in ge neral. This is especially due to the fact that when it comes to web surfing, modern web visitors are highly dependent on wearable mobile devices. As innovations continue to be made, new technologies emerge from time to time. The emerging and new technologies bring a range of opportunities for them and for the different fields they are applied in. Web application development is an area in computer technology that has been impacted by emerging technologies and where opportunities have grown.

Human Sexuality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Human Sexuality - Essay Example This paper attempts to discuss the characteristics of a sexually healthy person. Furthermore, it gives an overview regarding sexual dysfunctions and sexually transmitted diseases. Finally, this paper provides some ways by which we should protect ourselves and maintain good sexual health. A sexually healthy person may be described as someone who derives pleasure and gives pleasure in return when engaging in sexual intercourse with the use of fully functional sex organs. In this regard, someone sexually healthy displays the normal symptoms when he/she gets aroused. For instance, a sexually healthy man gets an erection during foreplay. Meanwhile, his female counterpart gets "wet". A sexually healthy person is defined as such since this signify that one is indeed ready to have sex and actually engage in the act itself without further dilemma. In addition, I believe that there is another dimension to being sexually healthy that involves a person's state of mind. A sexually healthy person is also someone who engages in the myriad methods of sexual intercourse under the condition that his/her overall health and well-being are not placed at risk. For example, a pre-requisite to being sexually healthy entails the use of condom or other means of protection so as not to contract and prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) that may impair one's sexual health. Those people with fetish or display unusual sexual behaviors may still be considered sexually healthy so long as they do not jeopardize their general health conditions when engaging in sexual activities. I think that the above is an important definition of a sexually healthy person since being sexually healthy means that we do our best in maintaining our health. It is not enough that we derive pleasure from sex. On top of this, we should strive to keep safe and enhance overall health conditions. Sexual Dysfunction Opposite to being sexually healthy, some people may suffer from a form of sexual dysfunction that inhibits their ability to maximize the pleasure derived from sex. In the case of men, some are unable to "get it up" or get an erection. Others may experience pre-mature ejaculation or when they get orgasm long before their partner does ore even prior to penetration. On the other hand, some may not even reach orgasm regardless of how often and how long they have sex. For women, some may experience pain while having sex due to the lack of lubrication or simply because they are not "wet" enough. In the same way as men, some women may also have difficulty in having orgasm during sexual intercourse. Other women may even be too frigid to even have sex. These are just some of the common sexual dysfunctions experienced by males and females. Given the importance of sex in human beings' lives, it is necessary that these dysfunctions be addressed. These sexual dysfunctions have direct effect on how one could have children and build a family. Moreover, these dysfunctions may have adverse psychological effects on men and women like the loss of self-confidence. Specifically for men, they may be subjected to teasing from their peers. With the prevailing "macho" ideology, male prowess is often indicated by how much men are able to have sex. Being teased about their ability to have sex is a big no-no for men as this would cause a definitely big blow

Contemporary Management Practices within the Public Sector Thesis

Contemporary Management Practices within the Public Sector - Thesis Example priately the current achievements of the present form of procurement systems, while taking intelligent and sustainable decisions for the future systems in the context of fluctuating political orders. The measuring framework must take into consideration the factors of effectiveness and efficiency (measured through cost effectiveness and achieving the desired procurement results), confidence of the civil society (which is reflected in the system accountability and transparency factors), and the policy acquiescence and stability factors. This framework must be accommodated within a larger  measuring system  within a sustainable public management,  portraying a certain  standard of life against only monetary wealth. In terms of designing basic notions for such measuring processes, there are three main underlying concepts. First, the structure of an organisation lies within multidimensional and complex frameworks. Secondly, there must measures for safeguarding basic transparency a nd integrity within the public procurement system; and thirdly, to alleviate the standards of  the public procurement systems,  the associated performance management  must necessarily serve as a model for present and future ethical reviews. This paper serves to study the organizational development structure, and supply chain management in the context of public/private procurements sectors, the basic notions of performance measurement in public procurement, while exploring the perspective of accountability and transparency within the public procurement system. Chapter 1 Introduction and Overview "Not  everything  that  counts  can  be  counted,  and  not  everything  that  can  be  counted   counts."  ~ Albert  Einstein 1.1 Introduction (background study) A recent trend in the realms of business... A recent trend in the realms of business management shows that the public sector has shown a gradual shift in its operational perspective, with a greater focus on privatization, and an emphasis on cost saving and increasing efficiency. Comprehending the necessity of outsourcing large-scale work to the private sector for better economic growth and developments, many State governments have started the processes of public procurement, under prescribed directives and regulations created to regulate the process, as are seen in the Council Directives 93/37/EEC, 93/38/EEC and 93/36/EEC and their subsequent modified versions. This is also evident in the 41 USC Sec. 253 in the United States, where it is clearly stated that â€Å"an executive agency in conducting a procurement for property or services - (A) shall obtain full and open competition through the use of competitive procedures in accordance with the requirements this subchapter and the Federal Acquisition Regulation.† The current importance of public procurement is seen in the increased governmental activity in â€Å"purchasing of goods and services,† for State requirements, through fair competitive auction -bidding, which accounts for 10% - 20% of the GDP of all the countries. A productive public procurement system decides the standard, scope, and extent, of a country’s infrastructural development and proffered public services towards its citizens, thus, making public procurement a primary issue within the agenda of a State’s economic development plan.

Quality of Living Analysis for Greenpoint, Brooklyn Essay Example for Free

Quality of Living Analysis for Greenpoint, Brooklyn Essay Greenpoint Greenpoint, Brooklyn is a culturally vibrant neighborhood full of a wide range of retail shops, restaurants, bars venues, banks, and other services. It is largely occupied by people of Polish descent (43. 6% according to the 2000 Census) and of Hispanic descent (19. 2%. ) The median income is $33,578, significantly lower than the corresponding national average of $41,994. Even with the median income in Greenpoint being almost $10,000 less than the national average, it has many of the same difficult characteristics shared by most New York City neighborhoods namely igher-than-average housing prices, overcrowded schools, higher utility prices, high local taxes, and lack of high paying Jobs- all of which create a much higher total cost of living than most cities in the United States. A very low proportion of Greenpoint residents own their homes. According to the 2000 census, only 19. 2% of residents owned the homes they were living in, versus the 66. % national average. Rent prices have also consistently been on the rise, despite a few significant hiccups since the November 2008 financial crisis. It could be a great advantage to local residents if a rogram was set up providing local tax breaks for first time home owners in Greenpoint. Also, if the budget would allow, the City could match the Federal governments pledge of $8000 in assistance for first time homebuyers. With $16,000 in assistance, and lowered taxes, many Greenpoint residents who otherwise would not be able to purchase a home might be able to afford that option. A lower percentage of Greenpoint residents graduate high school than the national average (70. 4% vs. 80. 4%), which is also true for those with Bachelors degrees (21. 2% vs. 24. 4%). This lack of higher education hinders peoples likelihood of getting high aying Jobs, and in turn, makes it harder for them to move out of poverty into the middle class. A no-cost GED training center should be set up on Greenpoint Avenue to assist high school dropouts (of any age) in getting a diploma. Similarly, a Greenpoint GED College fund should be set up, to provide full CUNY scholarships for the top 10% of the graduates of these GED programs. This not only would incline many people to seek their own education who otherwise wouldnt, but it would also prevent many of the best students from slipping through the cracks, and ensure that more Greenpoint kids got a chance to go to college. A hot button issue for Greenpoint (and Brookyn as a whole) is land-use and development. In 2005, the City Council passed a plan for the re-zoning and development of much of the Greenpoint and Williamsburg waterfront, as well a large block of the upland area. The plan is known as the Greenpoint-Williamsburg Land Use and Waterfront Plan. The plan focuses on changing zoning regulations along the northern Brooklyn waterfront and some of the upland areas, mostly to allow for large residential buildings to be built. Many residents of the community were worried about the waterfront development uildings being built very high, and pushed for regulations limiting the number of condominium ; rental developments being geared only toward those with high incomes, and not toward those with average Greenpoint ; Williamsburg incomes (Williamsburg has an even lower median income than Greenpoint, $23,567. An attempt was made to strike a compromise between the community and the development groups, to solve both of these problems in one fell swoop. The compromise that was eventually passed is called the Greenpoint-Williamsburg Inclusionary Housing Program, which attempts to address concerns about both uilding height and low-income housing. The program stipulates that any development that includes a certain amount of affordable housing is eligible for a floor area bonus, meaning they are allowed to build higher than the base restriction. There are 2 waterfront zones designated, R6 and R8; in R6 the base floor area restriction is up to 23 stories, in R8 it is 33 stories. With 20-25% of space within the development designated for affordable housing, this restriction can be raised 4. 7% to 30 stories and 40 stories respectively. While in theory this idea sounds promising, in practice it will not accomplish the goals it claims to. First of all, if a new development chooses not to go past the floor area restrictions, then there is no requirement that they provide any affordable housing. This leaves little incentive for developers to spend the extra money to build higher, and choose to include the low- income housing, as they only gain 4. 6% in floor area bonus, but have to designate over 20% of the total space of affordable housing. It ends up only inclining them against building past the base floor area restrictions (which many residents believe are already far too lax, allowing for unnecessarily tall buildings that block other uildings views, and obstruct sunlight for large areas of the upland waterfront. I believe the plan should be changed to require that any and all new developments include at least 10% affordable housing to begin with. In addition to the affordable housing problem, the Greenpoint-Williamsburg Land Use and Waterfront Plan does not include any provisions for building new schools in the neighborhood. A new high school in Greenpoint is sorely needed, as most high school age students who cannot attend the Automotive Technical School, which is the o nly public high school in Greenpoint, end up attending schools in Ridgewood, Queens and Williamsburg. The plan also has no provisions for public daycare centers, tutoring or after-school programs, or improved transportation routes from the northwestern waterfront area (which is very difficult to commute from). It would be prudent to adjust the plan to require at least some of these programs to be set up in the area, at the shared cost of the developers and the City. It is important to use contractors and building companies from the local area when building new developments in Greenpoint. Too often, contracts for restoration projects, and new developments end up going to companies not from Brooklyn. For instance the old Greenpoint Hospital, which has been gathering dust since 1982, is going to be converted in 240 units of affordable housing, but the contract for this conversion went to TNS Development Group, based in Queens. Two other contracts, from local Greenpoint community groups, were both rejected. A perfect sector to create high paying Jobs in the local community is in skilled construction and building, it seems only right to award the slew of evelopment contracts that are available in the area to local contractors and edited to require that 50% of all building contracts from now on go to companies located in the 11222 area code. Shortly before her death, Jane Jacobs summed up the problems with the waterfront development plans in a letter to Mayor Michael Bloomberg: The communitys plan does not cheat the future by neglecting to provide provisions for schools, daycare, recreational outdoor sports, and pleasant facilities for those things. The communitys plan does not promote new housing at the expense of both xisting housing and imaginative and economical new shelter that residents can afford. The communitys plan does not violate the existing scale of the community, nor does it insult the visual and economic advantages of neighborhoods that are precisely of the kind that demonstrably attract artists and other live-work craftsmen [but] the proposal put before you by city staff is an ambush containing all those destructive consequences. The roadblocks in the way of changing some of these plans would be great, and in order to make it possible, it would require a tremendous amount of public outcry and rassroots organization, in order to influence some major change of character in the highest levels of local power. If Mayor Bloomberg could be convinced to live up to his many campaign promises of building more public schools (and not Just charter schools), and more affordable housing, then maybe Greenpoint could get the funds and zoning changes needed to build a new High School and provide good housing for its largest demographic, the lower class. In order to fund some of these projects, taxes could be raised on all waterfront property that is not designated to low income ousing- which might provide some more incentive for developers to build more affordable housing in the area, and if it not, it might at least add some tax revenue that could help fund a new local high school. A plan that properly addresses all the issues in a neighborhood like Greenpoint would have to be much more expansive and detailed, and would surely encounter a lot of resistance from some local politicians and big development companies, but some of the ideas presented in this paper could have far-reaching positive consequences if they could gain enough public support, and be implemented.

Possibility Thinking Research

Possibility Thinking Research Introduction Most people accept that early years education should aim to develop childrens creativity but this raises a number of questions; namely what is creativity? How does it relate to imagination, self expression and intelligence? What ways can creativity be taught and assessed and why is it valuable? Fostering childrens creativity involves more than the creative corner in the classroom it involves recognising their creative engagement manifested by young learners. According to Wilson (20.10.05) It is important that we foster creativity at an early stage so that children are more prepared to lead an active role in their own learning, develop better self-esteem and are more willing to take chances. Possibility thinking is at the heart of all creativity in young children. (Craft 2002) Possibilities are generated by children in all areas of learning e.g. play, music and scientific enquiry. It allows children to explore imaginative ways to produce a variety of outcomes e.g. is a banana a fruit or is it a telephone? The possibilities to develop childrens creative thinking are endless. Possibility thinking has been acknowledged in some educational literature on creativity but it has not been fully accepted by some educationalists (Craft 2001). Jeffrey (2005) believes it is at the core to creative learning and represents the being imaginative part of the current policy framework for creativity in England. Craft and Jeffrey (2004) believe that possibility thinking involves enabling children to find and refine problems as well as solve them. The aim of this research is to investigate whether possibility thinking is at the heart of creativity in young children. I hypothesise that: Possibility thinking is at the heart of creativity in young children Creativity and imagination allows young children to learn and develop Possibility thinking will only take place if adults give children time and space The resources, environment and available tasks affect the possibilities for creative thinking Literature Review Creativity has been described as a voyage of discovery (Craft 2008). When it comes to creativity in schools the second half of the 20th century can be first seen as a drought following the introduction of the National Curriculum in 1989 which rejected children centred curriculum practices. After 1999 there were numerous opportunities for creativity in terms of curriculum and learning due to a shift in values in educational provision and the landscape of the classroom. During the end of the 20th and the start of the 21st century creativity has become significant in education due to the advice of the National Advisory Committee on creative and culture education (NACCCE 1999) led by Sir Ken Robinson and researchers such as Woods and Craft (1997) and Harland et al (1998). The key findings from their work was that creative learning involves children experiencing innovation in the classroom, control over activities, together with a sense of ownership in their learning. These features are characteristic of creative teaching (Jeffery and Woods 2003). The NACCCE saw creativity as imaginative activity, fashioned so as to produce outcomes that are original and of value (NACCCE 1999 pg 29). The approach together with linking creativity with culture saw a shift away from the view that creativity was only attainable by the gifted and a view of learning as empowerment in and beyond the classroom (Jeffrey and Craft 2001, Sefton-Green 2008). From 2002 the establishment of creative partnerships has promoted creative learning. The most recent curriculum polices of creativity within the early years are the Early Years Foundation Stage (DFES 2007, DCSF 2008) which continues to emphasize the significance of creativity. It encourages student engagement and offers teachers a means of personalised learning (Hargreaves 2008). The message seems to be creativity is for everyone everywhere! However there are problems as to how creativity is documented, assessed and how progression is supported (Rose 2008). Learning through the arts has the potential to stimulate open ended activity that encourages discovery, exploration, experimentation and invention contributing to a childs development (Bernadette Duffy 2006). Music, dance, and drama enable children to express their feelings. Creativity and imagination in the light of Every Child matters, Sure Start and the Foundation Stage curriculum enables young children to learn and develop whilst expressing their feelings, thoughts and responses. Anna Craft (2000) introduced and developed the notion of possibility thinking as core to little c creativity. Possibility thinking is means by which intelligence, self-creation, self-expression and know-how are bought together and expressed, It finds a way around a problem by posing questions and finding a problem through identifying a question or topic to be investigated. Fostering young childrens possibility thinking involves moving their thinking on from what does this do? to what can i do with this? It involves a move from the convergent to more divergent thinking. The paper Pedagogy and Possibility Thinking in the Early Years (Cremin, Burnard and Craft May 2006) sought to identify what characterises possibility thinking expanded on young childrens learning experiences and how teachers pedagogical practices fosters this critical aspect of creativity. Possibility thinking is central to creative learning and at the heart of all creative engagement. A 12 month study carried out in a primary school by University researchers showed that teachers use the practice of standing back whilst giving pupils time and space so as to foster possibility thinking. Studies undertaken by the team (Craft 2001, Burnard et al 2006, Chappel 2006, Cremin et al 2006) suggest that the concept of Possibility thinking has creative engagement across all contexts. Possibility thinking implies attention to impact of ideas and nurtures trusteeship (Claxton 2008). The Curriculum Guidance for the foundation stage emphasizes that creativity begins with curiosity and involves children in exploration and experimentation. They draw upon their imagination and originality. They make decisions, take risks and play with ideas. If they are to be truly creative, children need the freedom to develop and the support of adults (DFES 2000:118). The work of researchers such as Craft (2002), Csikszentmhalyi (1997), Fisher (1990) and Lipman (1988) has demonstrated the value of creativity in learning in the early years. In the foundation stage curriculum document creativity is presented as a subject and promoted in areas such as dance, music and stories. However they argue young childrens learning is not compartmentalised (DFES:45). Thus subjects such as mathematics should provide opportunities for creative thinking as teachers need to recognise the importance of creativity throughout the whole curriculum so as to develop childrens creative thinking and extend t heir learning whenever possible. (Worthington and Carruthers 2005) Given the pace of change in the 21st century education needs to be creative whilst enhancing the creativity of both young children and the adults who work with them (Facer 2007). Methodology The researcher chose to use a combination of both secondary source materials alongside primary sources. The already published literature provided her with a solid base on which she was able to begin to base the investigation as well as providing the researcher with possible areas to explore and correlations to look out for when carrying out her research. The primary sources enabled her to support the research that already existed and helped to draw balanced conclusions when it came to answering the research question. This made her investigation current and valid but will also aid the researchers future practice. Research in education is a disciplined attempt to address questions or solve problems through the collection and analysis of primary data for the purpose of description, explanation, generalisation and prediction (Anderson et al, 1998). There are many types of research but they all share the following basic characteristics; They are all, or aim to be planned, cautious, systematic and reliable ways of finding out or deepening understanding (Blaxter et al, 2001, p.5). The researcher used a variety of primary methods: Unstructured interviews Unstructured interviews are a qualitative method of research that provides informal, open ended flowing conversations. The advantage of this method, when discussing a subjective area such as creativity is that it provides in depth information. Interviews provide valid and useful information which will enrich her research and by gathering opinions on possibility of thinking she will gain insight into the benefits and motivation it provides to young children. Participant Observations The researcher will carry out overt observations in a variety of settings namely a primary school, a playgroup and a residential home. She will use overt observations whereby adults, and children are aware of her presence so as to avoid ethical issues. The researcher chose participant observations so that as a trusted adult she could join in with the creative activities and thus fully understand what was happening in each individual setting. The researcher was also keen to observe how an adult intervention and presence affected the childrens creative process. Ethics considered There are research concerns specific to children and young people set out in the British Educational Research Association (BERA) ethical guidelines. Primarily, these are focused upon the informed and valid consent of participants, and ways of assuring that this is attained (Lindsay, 2000). It was ensured that the BERA ethical guidelines were followed. This included, informing the primary school teacher, playgroup leader and childminder what the research entailed and what would be expected of the children included in the sample. In line with ethical issues it was stressed that the data would remain anonymous. Empirical chapter 1: Observations Introduction Observations are an interpretivist approach. Interpretivism emphasizes that people have consciousness involving personal beliefs, values and interpretations and these influence the way people out. They do not simply respond to forces outside of them. (K.Browne 2006) The researcher aims to interpret the values and feelings of both individuals and the group. The information will be in-depth and on a micro scale. Aims Participant observations aim to develop an understanding from the view point of the subjects of the research without allowing the researchers own values and prejudices to distort the observation. Children pose questions and find solutions to stimulate creative thinking. If young children are prepared to take risks they are more creative. Methodology Participant Observation The first task of any research is to gather information. The researcher will be doing this by carrying out observations so that explanations and correlations can be made. The information generated will provide her with opinions about the extent to which possibility thinking is at the heart of creativity in young children. She will carry out three observations the first at a primary school in Stafford where she will observe a year one numeracy lesson. The second at a playgroup in Wolverhampton and finally the third at the residential home of a childminder in Northampton. The observations will be overt and participant. The researcher will be honest with the children and adults so they understand what she is doing. All observations will take place in a non-threatening, safe atmosphere. At both the playgroup and childminders home the children will be either playing or involved in creative activities. At school the year one pupils will be involved in a numeracy lesson. The researcher will use an observation sheet to record information and write the observations up at a later date. She has chosen participant observation as the researcher joins the group being studied and can therefore see things through their eyes. Observation 1 Participants Barnfield Primary school Stafford year one class 25 pupils 14 girls 11 boys Materials Numeracy lesson plan on shape Procedures Firstly she wrote to the head to ask permission to carry out the observation and then visited the school on Monday 14th December 2009 for a pre-visit to discuss the observation with the class teacher. She carried out the observation on Tuesday 12th January 2010. Analysis The data will be written up on the observation sheet and analysed at a later date. Observation 2 Participants Portobello Community Centre pre-school playgroup 8 children 5 boys 3 girls Materials Cut out reindeers, card Construction toys Observation sheet Procedures Firstly she contacted the play leader by telephone to discuss the observations. She carried out the observations on the 7th December 2009 and the 18th January 2010. Analysis The data will be written up on the observation sheet and analysed at a later date. Observation 3 Particpants Registered childminders home in Northampton. At present she looks after boys aged seven and five and a girl aged three. Materials Toys e.g doll house, brio and magnetix Musical instruments e.g drums and shakers Observation sheet Procedures The child minder is a family friend so the researcher made contact by phone. The researcher then visited on Monday 21st December 2009 to carry out the observation. Analysis The data will be written up on the observation sheet and analysed at a later date. Results from observations The researcher chose to observe young children in a variety of settings. The children at school were involved in a directed task namely a numeracy lesson about shape. The children at playgroup and at the childminders home were either playing or involved in semi-structured activities which gave scope for creativity and allowed for personal expression, unlike the numeracy lesson the play, art and music tasks excluded the notation for right and wrong. The children in all 3 settings produced a variety of results and their scope for creativity was dependent upon The environment The activity The resources available The level of adult support and intervention Discussion of Playgroup Observation 1 The observations at the playgroup showed three aspects of the process using the Possibility Thinking framework namely: Posing questions Play Immersion and making connections They also included three aspects of process outcome: Being imaginative Innovation Risk taking There was little evidence of development or innovation but this was probably due to the fact that the children were aged between two to four. The first observation on 7th December 2009 showed the youngsters involved in a Christmas workshop making cards and 3D reindeers. The children were excited and constantly posing questions about what colours and materials to use. The children were immersed in the activity and the outcomes were imaginative and showed they were happy to take risks. The youngsters were confident and supported by numerous adults thus the level of adult supervision was high. Discussion of Playgroup Observation 2 The second observation took place at the playgroup on January 18th 2010. The youngsters were allowed to play in the sand and water, home corner and with construction toys such as bricks and Lego. The boys were more interested in the construction toys, whilst the girls predominately played in the home corner. All children were immersed in play and asked questions. They were imaginative and took risks; however there was little evidence of innovation or development. The level of adult supervision was quite high however the intervention by the adults was low. Discussion of Childminders Observation The researcher visited a childminders home on Friday 18th December 2009 when she was looking after three children. The youngsters played with construction toys, jigsaws, dolls house, and my little ponies. They then played with musical instruments such as a drum set and maracas. The children were thrilled to make music. The three children constantly chatted to each other. They played together and on their own. The boys were immersed in creating a brio track and Lego models whereas the girl immersed herself in the imaginary world of my little pony. All three children were imaginative and creative especially when the musical instruments appeared. They discovered different sounds and ways of making music and formed a mini band. Discussion of Numeracy Lesson observation (year one on shape) The researcher expected the lesson to have limited opportunities for creativity due to space and structure constraints. She views numeracy as a factual, uncreative lesson which focuses on the understanding of set rules. However the researcher was surprised that the pupils ideas were welcomed and they could pose questions. The children could not really produce original work as there were right and wrong answers although they did explore different methods to get there so were given some ownership for their own learning. There was also some scope for development and innovation in their work. Conclusion of observations The aim of participant observations is to develop an understanding from the point of view of subjects without prejudice. The researcher achieved this by observing youngsters and their adult supervisors in a variety of settings whilst becoming a full trusted member of the group. All the children posed questions so as to find solutions to stimulate creative thinking. The youngsters at both the playgroup and childminders home had more opportunities to take risks than those in the classroom so had more chance to be creative. Empirical Chapter 2: Unstructured Interviews Introduction An unstructured interview is like a guided conversation. The interviewer has the topic to cover but questions are open-ended. The researcher seeks to put the respondent at ease, in a relaxed informal situation and hopefully the questions will trigger further discussion. The interviewer aims to obtain further depth than is possible in a structured interview. Unstructured interviews are from an interpretivist approach and provide qualitative data as they are concerned with peoples feelings and views. Aims Unstructured interviews provide rich, detailed information where by the respondents can express their feelings about the issue of creativity and possibility thinking. Certain tasks such as art, music, drama and dance are more suitable to creative thinking. The learning environment and teaching strategies need to provide scope for imagination if children are to produce a variety of outcomes and thus accommodate creative learning. Methodology Unstructured interviews The researcher will interview three adults and conduct the interviews like a discussion with open-ended questions. She will be careful not to influence the replies so as to avoid interviewer bias. She will write down the replies on an interview sheet but try not to disrupt the flow of the interviews. The replies will hopefully produce rich, qualitative information and comparisons between interviews can be drawn. The use of interviews, stimulate reflection and critical conversations about possibility thinking as a form of engagement and strategy of creativity and the creative thinking process. The probing questions will allow the adults to focus on what they consider to be significant in the creative learning experiences. Interview 1 Particpants Barnfield Primary School Stafford Year one class teacher. Materials Procedures The researcher wrote to head to ask permission to interview a class teacher. The researcher visited the school to meet the teacher on Monday 14th December. The researcher carried out the interview on Tuesday 12th January 2010. Analysis The researcher will write the interview up on the interview sheet and compare the three interviews. Interview 2 Particpants Portobello Community Centre playleader Materials Procedures The researcher contacted the play leader by telephone to discuss the interview. The researcher then carried out the interview on January 18th 2010. Analysis The researcher will write the interview up on the interview sheet and compare the three interviews. Interview 3 Particpants Registered childminder who is also a qualified teacher. Materials Procedures The researcher contacted the childminder by phone to discuss the interview. The interview was carried out on Monday 21st December 2009. Analysis The researcher will write the interview up on the interview sheet and compare the three interviews. Results from Interviews The researcher chose to interview the three adults who were involved in her observations. The questions had a focus related to creativity and possibility thinking but were open ended so allowed for development. All adults were interviewed in a quiet environment where they felt at ease. The three adults all said they used similar strategies to encourage creativity namely standing back and providing a safe environment, with multiple resources that encouraged creative thinking. Two out of three adults were unsure that possibility thinking was central to creative learning but thought strategies such as posing questions and giving children time and space does develop the notation of possibility thinking. All three adults thought the environment was important for creative learning and believed a safe, challenging experience helps to provide opportunities for imaginative experiences. All three adults felt some tasks were more suited to creative thinking such as dance, music and play however the class teacher thought subjects such as maths and science should provide opportunities for creative thinking. Discussion of Interviews with year one teacher, play leader and registered childminder All three adults interviewed discussed different strategies they used to encourage children to be creative that included giving youngsters time and space and providing a variety of resources which allowed children to explore activities in imaginative ways. The children were allowed to pose questions and take risks. They felt the environment and the tasks offered were crucial to creative thinking however only the class teacher thought possibility thinking was central to creative learning. They all thought that creativity begins with curiosity and is developed if children are given the opportunity to explore and experiment with different resources and ideas. Conclusion of interviews The aim of unstructured interviews was to provide rich identical information whereby respondents could express their feelings about creativity and possibility thinking. All three interviewees gave the researcher detailed insight into the adults views about the research issue. All three interviews felt certain tasks such as art and music were more suitable to creative thinking. They gave a detailed account of how the learning environment and strategies such as giving children time and space provide opportunities for imagination and creative learning. Conclusion NACCCE (1999) argued creativity is imaginative actively fashioned so as to produce outcomes that are both original and of value. According to Craft possibility thinking is at the heart of creativity in education. This idea has implications as the engagement of learners according to Jeffrey (2005) leads to engagement with problems. Fostering childrens possibility thinking can be seen as building their resilience and confidence and referencing their capabilities as confident explorers, meaning makers and decision makers. (Craft 2005). Possibility thinking involves problem finding and solving. Creative teaching may foster learner creativity providing there are co-participative partnerships between teachers and learners, in which they explore issues, pose questions, identify problems and reflect upon their thinking and learning. The key factor being that the control has to be handed back to the learner (Craft and Jeffery 2003). In seeking to unravel the issues of what constitutes possibility thinking in the learning experiences of young children and how teachers, play leaders and childminders foster possibility thinking as an aspect of creativity, the researcher carried out observations and interviews. She used probing questions and encouraged the adults to engage in in-depth reflective practice. Following close observations in each context using the possibility thinking documentation framework and further interviews with the adults in charge, core areas of possibility thinking in childrens learning were identified. They included the three aspects of process i.e posing questions, play immersion and inversion. They also included the three aspects of process outcome i.e being imaginative, innovation and risk taking. The observations were written up in the light of the three-fold-structure. Many of the youngsters were involved in risk taking and were immersed in an activity. On the outcomes there was little evidence of development and the question of taking intentional action was problematic as many of the children were too young. In terms of process outcome the notation of innovation was also difficult as what might be normal for one child in one particular environment may not be normal for another. The separation of process and outcome is not easy during the early years as young children often take risks to move their thinking forward but this may not be an outcome. The integration between creative teaching and learning also seemed to foster possibility thinking. If young children feel safe they gain confidence as with the children in all three observational settings. The three interviews highlighted the fact that they all tried to foster creativity in their youngsters by providing a stimulating learning environment which allowed the children to pose questions and explore a variety of outcomes in an imaginative way. The adults tried to stand back but felt some tasks were more suited to creative thinking than others. The aim of the research was to investigate whether possibility thinking is at the heart of creativity in young children. Researchers such as Professor Anna Craft believe it is so as does one out of three of the adults interviewed. Many researchers such as Craft, Jeffrey, Burnard and Chappel all feel creativity and imagination allow young children to learn and develop. If children are to be creative, adults need to give them freedom to develop. Cremin, Burnard and Craft (2006) found that in a twelve month study carried out in schools; that teachers needed to stand back and give children time and space to foster possibility thinking. The observations and interviews carried out by the researcher reinforced this. The final hypothesis was that the resources, environment and tasks affect the possibilities for creative thinking. The observations and interviews with adults confirmed this. Deciding whether the motivation of pupils based on the creative setting was difficult to determine as she only carried out observations in three settings and only interviewed three adults, thus her findings were limited. Possibility thinking does appear to influence creativity but the sample was small and the decisions the researcher made were subjective and not based upon objective scientific testing. Bibliography Blaxter,L. (2001). How To Research. Second edition. England. Open University press. Browne,K. (2006). Introducing Sociology for AS level. Second edition. Cambridge. Polity Press. British Educational Research Association (BERA). [Online]. (http://www.bera.ac.uk/blog/2010/03/04/exploration-and-analysis-on-creativity-and-innovation-in-initial-vocational-education-and-training/). (Accessed 10.12.2009) Britzman, D. (1986) Cultural myths in the making of a teacher: biography and social structurein teacher education. Harvard Educational Review, 56(4), pp. 442-446. Burnard, P., Craft, A. and Grainger, T. (2006), Possibility Thinking, International Journal of Early Years Education. Volume 14. No. 3, October 2006 pp 243-262 Chappell, K. (2006). Creativity within late primary age dance education: Unlocking expert specialist dance teachers conceptions and approaches. [Online].(Available from http://kn.open.ac.uk/public/document.cfm?documentid=8627). London. (Accessed 21.01.2010) Claxton, G. (2008). Creativity, Wisdom and Trusteeship. Thousand Oaks, CA., Corwin Press. Craft, A. (1997).Can You Teach Creativity? Nottingham. Routeledge. Craft, A. (1999) Creative development in the early years: some implications of policy for practice.[Online]. (http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a739635700db=all). The Curriculum Journal. Volume 10(Issue 1). (Accessed 002.01.2010). Craft, A. (2000), Creativity Across the Primary Curriculum. London. Routledge Craft, A. (2001) Little c Creativity. In A. Craft, B. Jeffrey and M. Leibling Creativity in Education. London.Continuum. Craft, A. (2002).Creativity and Early Years Education. London. Continuum Books Craft, A. (2005) Creativity in schools: tensions and dilemmas. Abingdon.Routledge. Craft ,A. (2008). Creativity in the school.[Online].(http://www.beyondcurrenthorizons.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/ch3_final_craft_creativityinschool_20081218.pdf). Exeter. Open University. (Accessed 02.01.2010) Craft, A. Creativity and Possibillity in the Early Years.[Online] (http://www.tactyc.org.uk/pdfs/Reflection_craft.pdf). (Accessed 02.12.2009) Craft, A. Cremin, T., Burnard, P.(2006) Pedagogy and possibility thinking in the early years.[Online]. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL_udi=B7XN8-4M2WTP9-1_user=10_coverDate=11%2F30%2F2006_rdoc=1_fmt=high_orig=search_sort=d_docanchor=view=c_searchStrId=1255424291_rerunOrigin=google_acct=C000050221_version=1_urlVersion=0_userid=10md5=0241bbe9052a7b6bb3b1e704447d2c06). International Journal of Thinking Skills and Creati

Music and Censorship

Music and Censorship Music and Censorship Music today is an important part of our lives. It is a way to express ourselves as individuals and it is a form of art that helps us define who and what we are. We use it to express our feelings, our views, and our ideas. Today, many artists are faced with censorship and is one of the controversial things that they have to deal with. Censorships purpose is to limit or restrict certain parts of a certain subject. In music words are either changed or bleeped out so that it would be considered appropriate. But, if music considered an art form, then why censor it? Musicians are artists and music is their way of expressing themselves. Censorship takes away everything that defines art and what makes artists ‘artists. In music, there are different types of styles or genres. There is classical, pop, rock, country, metal, and the list would go on. But theres a certain genre thats primarily targeted by censors†¦and that is rap. Rap is probably one of the most popular music genres today, but is also one of the most criticized one. The reason why it is criticized so much is because it has explicit content usually having references to sex, drugs, and violence. To some people they believe that it promotes sex, drug usage, and violence acts while others believe that its simply just self expression. So what if it does talk about all these bad things? What happened to freedom of expression? Freedom to create andfreedom of speechare vital to our society. Music is art and there is no question about that. Censors need to realize that art not only explores on happy and pleasant feelings, but also fear, anger, sadness, and truth in our everyday lives. It is essential to recognize that aside from lyrical qua lity, there are other things the makeup music. In Victor Lombardis Music and Censorship, he quotes Peter Michaelsons, author of The Aesthetics of Pornography in saying â€Å"The responsibility of society, if it accepts poetry as a mode of knowledge, is to remain open to what poets of all genres, including the pornographic, have to say. Otherwise all mirrors will soon reflect the same imbecilic smile.† Censorship isnt something new; in fact, its something thats been implemented dating back in the early 1940s. In Kathleen Anthonys article Censorship of Popular Music: An Analysis of Lyrical Content, she states â€Å"In the 1950s radio networks and stations commonly used this form of censorship, altering song lyrics or removing lyrics deemed offensive for broadcast†¦often the songs meaning was changed considerably and without consulting the songs original lyricist for the revition†(8). In 1985, albums began being labeled with ‘Parental Advisory for explicit content. In Steve Joness article Ban(ned)in the USA: Popular Music and Censorship, he states â€Å"the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) agreed to Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) Request for lables on sound recordings warning of explicit content†(6). However, The ‘Parental Advisory labels and tracks that were edited have only made rap artists even more inspired and creative, and th ats why listeners are even more drawned to it. Many listeners want to hear the original version of the music or track that is censored because it doesnt convey the truth. While some artists choose to write about love, nature, or happy thoughts, others choose to write about struggles in life. If the words in the lyrics are articulated in a manner that is offensive and makes the person uncomfortable, the solution is to simply not listen to it. One of the most controversial music artists today is Eminem. A lot of people absolutely love him and a lot of people hate him. Using his incredible skills in writing and rhyming, he is able to rap pretty much about anything and everything, from his hardships in his early life and his dislike for the mainstream media, he became one of the most well known iconic rapper today. To artists, their work is their pride, it is what defines them and their work is their reflection of themselves. To censor their work is to deny them their ability to express themselves. In Eminems song Till I Collapse, he talks about the importance of his music and how it affects him. â€Å"Music is like magic theres a certain feeling you get when youre real and you spit and people are feeling your shit. This is your moment and every single minute you spend trying to hold onto it cause you may never get it again. So while youre in it try to get as much shit as you can and when your run is over just admit when its at its end.† Eminem feels that it important to hold on that something that is dear you (which is the feeling he experiences when he raps) and not give it up because that is what you are and the feeling you get when you have that is something that you might experience again. â€Å"Cause sometimes you feel tired, feel weak, and when you feel weak, you feel like you wanna just give up. But you gotta search within you, you gotta find that inner strength and just pull that shit out of you and get that motivation to not give up and not be a quitter, no matter how bad you wanna just fall flat on your face and collapse.† In his song Stimulate he talks about how his songs are attacked by censors and people who dislike his music. â€Å"My lyrical content is constantly under fire No wonder why I constantly bomb back To combat attacks with constant concepts When lyrics are constantly took outta context Failure to communicate with congress has Been a problem for the longest, I guess† Eminem is telling the listeners that his lyrics constantly attacked because of the things he says in his music and how everything taken out of context. This only causes him to retaliate by creating more songs based on the reactions hes getting. What people need to realize is that some topics that the artists sing about are purely for entertainment and are not meant literally. â€Å"My music can be slightly amusing You shouldnt take lyrics so serious, it might be confusing Just trying to seperate the truth from entertainment Its stupid, aint it? I get sick of trying to explain it† According to one interview with Eminem, he was quoted as saying: â€Å"A lot of my rhymes are just to get chuckles out of people. Anybody with half a brain is going to be able to tell when Im joking and when Im serious.† However, according to Todd Brauers article Rap Uncensored, â€Å"This is actually quite uncommon. There are many rappers with lyrics like this and most dont bother to clarify what they say as being â€Å"just entertainment.† Rap does present the hard truth about many aspects of inner-city life and our nations hidden problems, but people, especially kids, need to learn that a large portion of the violence, drugs, sex, vulgar language, and images used in rap music are not something to admire.† Even though some many of the rap songs are offensive, it talks about inequality, poverty and politics which contain important messages that people can definitely relate to. This is why so many of the people who lash out against rap music are white people.In Robin Lakoffs book, The Language War, it was explained that the majority group has a tendency to overlook opposing views to keep their power. One can look at Eminem as part of a majority group; however, since he has such a strong relationship with the black culture it makes him an easy target to get bashed. In Bell Hooks interview with rapper Ice Cube she stated â€Å"The way that white people continue their power is, in part, through their control of our (the black races) images and representations.† If someone has control over who gets to say what, then those people have the power to define society. This pretty much says the war over rapcensorshipis not only a battle over whether or not the First Amendment is being crossed, but it is also an attempt by those in power of language to prevent change and suppress those threatening it. Efforts to ban songs by artists like Eminemand Ice Cube would balloon the â€Å"us versus them† mentality even more, leading to people who do not support the songs lyrics but do support free speech (Chideya). The basis of America is to let everyone be able to voice their own opinion so I dont see any good reason for that to be completely taken away. Warning labels, edited album versions, and age restrictions on buying labeled albums serve as a fair compromise without largely limiting peoples access to rap music. I dont think there is a way to completely stop people from obtaining this music without violating some of our constitutional rights. Again, education about the lyrics and topics that exist in rap music seems to be a better combatant.

Disease vs. Humans: The Evolutionary Race :: Journalistic Essays

Disease vs. Humans: The Evolutionary Race Dramatic changes in living conditions and population structure are usually associated with the changes caused by the Industrial Revolution. Massive migration to cities and the development of urban centers which followed increased the likelihood of disease spread and evolution, and has also increased disease persistence. Diseases use cities (places where hundreds, thousands and millions of people are in very close quarters with each other) as a super highway; cities provide the perfect infrastructure for disease travel. As they travel and harm, diseases are in a constant race with their hosts towards evolutionary perfection. As their hosts evolve to kill the microbes, the microbes evolve to either keep the host alive for longer, or travel more quickly between hosts. One way that disease has utilized the growth of cities in order to evolve and thus travel better is its transformation from an exclusive disease for animals to an exclusive disease for humans. For example, typhus was originally transmitted between rats by fleas until typhus microbes realized that human body lice was a much more efficient method of traveling, now that humans are no longer host to lice typhus has changed to infect eastern North American flying squirrels and then transferring to people who live in close proximity to the squirrels (Diamond 209). Diseases are, in short, constantly changing in order to propagate more efficiently and more quickly. Our intimacy with animals has provided a quick and easy method of disease transformation and therefore better propagation. Pathogens that were formerly secluded to animals evolve to the point where they are directly transmitted between people. When these people are parts of large communities (a contingency that diseases thrive on) epidemics result, especially if the sanitation is as bad as in the first cities. In fact, up until the 20th century, Europe’s urban population was not self sustaining, so many died of crowd diseases that they had to be constantly replaced by rural immigrants (Diamond 205). Many of our epidemics could not have existed without the cities and the easy transportation they allow. Diseases, like all organisms, are constantly evolving in order to pass on the most genes. The best strategy for doing so is to replicate rapidly. If more rapid replication of a microbe inside a person leads to greater passing on of the genes that code for that rapid replication, then replication rate will increase even if it causes the person to be severely ill or leads to an overall decrease of the number of people it can effect, or even if it hastens the eventual extinction of the microbe (Ewald).